Did Jesus Christ really exist, or is Christianity a
legend built upon a fictitious character like Harry Potter?
For nearly two thousand years most of our world has
considered Jesus a real man who had exceptional character, leadership and power
over nature. But today some are saying he never existed.
The argument against Jesus’ existence, known as the
Christ-myth theory, began seventeen centuries after Jesus is said to have
walked the rocky hills of Judea . Ellen
Johnson, president of American Atheists, summarizes the Christ-myth view on CNN
TV Larry King Live:
There is
not one shred of secular evidence there ever was a Jesus Christ. Jesus is a
compilation from other gods who had the same origins, the same death as the
mythological Jesus Christ.
The stunned host, replied, “So you don’t believe
there was a Jesus Christ?” Johnson fired back, “There was not. There is
no secular evidence that Jesus Christ ever existed.” King immediately
requested a commercial break. The international television audience was left
wondering.[1]
In his early years as an atheist Oxford literary
scholar C. S. Lewis also considered Jesus a myth, thinking all religions were
simply inventions.[2] Years later, Lewis was sitting by the fire in
an Oxford dorm room with a friend he called “the hardest boiled atheist of
all the atheists I ever knew.” Suddenly his friend blurted out, “The
evidence for the historicity of the Gospels was really surprisingly good. It
almost looks as if it had really happened once.”[3]
Lewis was stunned. His friend’s remark that there was
real evidence for Jesus prompted Lewis to investigate the truth for himself. He
writes about his search for truth about Jesus in his classic book Mere
Christianity.
So, what evidence did Lewis’ friend discover for Jesus
Christ?
Ancient History Speaks
Let’s begin with a more foundational question: How can
we distinguish a mythical character from a real person? For example, what
evidence convinces historians that Alexander the Great was a real person? And
does such evidence exist for Jesus? Both Alexander and Jesus were depicted as
charismatic leaders. Both reportedly had brief careers, dying in their early
thirties. Jesus is said to have been a man of peace who conquered by love;
Alexander a man of war who ruled by the sword.
In 336 B.C. Alexander the Great became king of Macedonia
The history of Alexander is drawn from five ancient
sources written 300 or more years after he died.[4] Not one eyewitness
account of Alexander exists. However, historians believe Alexander really
existed, largely because the accounts of his life are confirmed by archaeology
and his impact on history.
Likewise, to determine if Jesus was a real person, we
need to seek evidence for his existence in the following areas:
1.
Archaeology
2. Early
non-Christian accounts
3. Early
Christian accounts
4. Early
New Testament manuscripts
5.
Historical impact
1. Archaeology
The sands of time have buried many mysteries about
Jesus that only recently have been brought to light. Perhaps the most
significant discoveries are several ancient manuscripts unearthed between the
18th and 20th centuries. We will look closer at these
manuscripts in a later section.
Archaeologists have also discovered numerous places
and relics that agree with the New Testament accounts of Jesus. Malcolm
Muggeridge was a British journalist who considered Jesus a myth until he saw
such evidence during a BBC television assignment to Israel
“A certainty
seized me about Jesus’ birth, ministry and Crucifixion. I became aware that
there really had been a man, Jesus….”[5]
However, prior to the 20th century no tangible
evidence existed for the Roman governor Pontius Pilate and the Jewish chief
priest Joseph Caiaphas. Both men were central figures in the trial leading to
the crucifixion of Christ. Skeptics cited this apparent lack of evidence as
ammunition for their Christ-myth theory.
However, in 1961 archaeologists discovered a block of
limestone inscribed with the name of “Pontius Pilate prefect of Judea .” And in 1990 archaeologists discovered an ossuary
(bone box) with the inscription of Caiaphas.
It has been verified as authentic “beyond a reasonable
doubt.”[6]
Also, until 2009, there was no tangible evidence that
Jesus’ hometown of Nazareth
Skeptics like Rene Salm regarded lack of evidence for
first-century Nazareth
“Celebrate,
freethinkers.… Christianity as we know it may be finally coming to an end!”[7]
However, on December 21, 2009, archaeologists
announced the discovery of first-century clay shards in Nazareth ,
confirming that this tiny hamlet existed during the time of Christ (see “Was
Jesus Really from Nazareth
Although these archaeological finds don’t prove that
Jesus lived there, they do support the Gospel accounts of his life. Historians note
that mounting evidence from archaeology confirms rather than contradicts the
accounts of Jesus.”[8]
2. Early Non-Christian Accounts
Skeptics like Ellen Johnson cite the “lack of secular
history” for Jesus as evidence that he didn’t exist. Yet there is very little
documentation for any person from the time of Christ. Most ancient historical
documents have been destroyed through the centuries, by wars, fires, and
pillaging, or simply through weathering and deterioration.
According to E. M. Blaiklock, who has catalogued most
of the non-Christian writings of the Roman Empire ,
“practically nothing exists from the time of Christ”, even for great
secular leaders such as Julius Caesar.[9] Yet no historian questions
Caesar’s existence. And since he wasn’t a great political or military leader,
Darrell Bock notes, “It is amazing and significant that Jesus shows up at all
in the sources we have.”[10]
So, who are these sources Bock mentions? Which early
historians who wrote of Jesus did not have a Christian agenda? First of all,
let’s look to Jesus’ enemies.
Jewish Historians: The Jews
had the most to gain by denying Jesus’ existence. But they always regarded him as
real. “Several Jewish writings refer to Jesus as a real person whom they
opposed.[11]
Noted Jewish historian Flavius Josephus wrote of
James, “the brother of Jesus the so-called Christ.”[12] If
Jesus wasn’t a real person why wouldn’t Josephus have said so?
In another somewhat controversial passage, Josephus
speaks more extensively of Jesus.[13]
At this
time there was a man who was called Jesus. His conduct was good, and he was
known to be virtuous. And many people from among the Jews and other nations
became his disciples. Pilate condemned him to be crucified, and he died. And
those who had become his disciples did not abandon his discipleship. They
reported that he had appeared to them three days after his crucifixion and that
he was alive. Accordingly, he was thought to be the Messiah.”[14]
Although some of his words are in dispute, Josephus’
confirmation here of Jesus’ existence is widely accepted
by scholars.[15] Israeli scholar Shlomo
Pines writes,
“Even the
most bitter opponents of Christianity never expressed any doubt as to Jesus
having really lived.”[16]
World historian Will Durant notes that no Jew or
Gentile from the first-century ever denied the existence of Jesus.[17]
Roman Historians: Early
Roman historians wrote primarily of events and people important to their
empire. Since Jesus wasn’t of immediate importance to the political or military
affairs of Rome
Tacitus (a.d. 55-120), the greatest early Roman
historian, wrote that Christus (Greek for Christ) had lived during the reign of
Tiberius and “suffered under Pontius Pilate, that Jesus’ teachings had already
spread to Rome; and that Christians were considered criminals and tortured in a
variety of ways, including crucifixion.”[18]
Suetonius (a.d. 69-130) wrote of “Chrestus” as an
instigator. Most scholars believe this is a reference to Christ. Suetonius also
wrote of Christians having been persecuted by Nero in a.d. 64.[19]
Roman Officials:
Christians were considered enemies of Rome
Pliny the Younger was an imperial magistrate under
Emperor Trajan. In a.d. 112, Pliny wrote to Trajan of his attempts to force
Christians to renounce Christ, whom they “worshiped as a god.” Emperor Trajan
(a.d. 56-117) wrote letters mentioning Jesus and early Christian origins. Emperor
Hadrian (a.d. 76-136) wrote about Christians as followers of Jesus.
Pagan Sources: Several
early pagan writers briefly mention Jesus or Christians prior to the end of the
second century. These include Thallus, Phlegon, Mara Bar-Serapion and Lucian of
Samosate.[21] Thallus’ remarks
about Jesus were written in a.d. 52, about twenty
years after Christ.
In total, nine early non-Christian secular writers
mention Jesus as a real person within 150 years of his death. Interestingly,
that is the same number of secular writers who mention Tiberius Caesar, the
Roman emperor during Jesus’ time.
If we were to consider Christian and non-Christian
sources, there are forty-two who mention Jesus, compared to just ten for
Tiberius.[22]
Historical Facts about Jesus:
These early non-Christian sources provide the
following facts about Jesus Christ:
&
Jesus was from Nazareth
&
Jesus lived a wise and
virtuous life.
&
Jesus was crucified in Judea under Pontius Pilate during the reign of Tiberius
Caesar at Passover time, being considered the Jewish king.
&
Jesus was believed by his
disciples to have died and risen from the dead three days later.
&
Jesus’ enemies acknowledged
that he performed unusual feats.
&
Jesus’ disciples multiplied
rapidly, spreading as far as Rome
&
Jesus’ disciples lived
moral lives and worshiped Christ as God.
This general outline of Jesus’ life agrees perfectly
with the New Testament.[23] Gary Habarmas notes,
“In total,
about one-third of these non-Christian sources date from the first century; a majority
originate no later than the mid-second century.”[24]
According to the Encyclopedia Britannica
”These independent
accounts prove that in ancient times even the opponents of Christianity never
doubted the historicity of Jesus.”[25]
3. Early Christian Accounts
Early Christians wrote thousands of letters, sermons
and commentaries about Jesus. Also, creeds which speak of Jesus, appeared as
early as five years after his crucifixion.[26] These non-biblical
writings confirm most New Testament details about Jesus, including his
crucifixion and resurrection.[27]
Incredibly, over 36,000 complete or partial such
writings have been discovered, some from the first century.[28]
These non-biblical writings could reconstruct the entire New Testament except
for a few verses.[29]
Each of these authors writes of Jesus as a real
person. Christ-mythers disregard these accounts as biased. But the question
they must answer is: How could a mythical Jesus have so much written about him
within a few decades of his life?
4. The New Testament
Skeptics like Ellen Johnson also dismiss the New
Testament as evidence for Jesus, calling it “biased.” However, even most
non-Christian historians consider ancient New Testament manuscripts as solid
evidence for Jesus’ existence. Cambridge
If we
apply to the New Testament, as we should, the same sort of criteria as we
should apply to other ancient writings containing historical material, we can
no more reject Jesus’ existence than we can reject the existence of a mass of
pagan personages whose reality as historical figures is never questioned.[30]
The Gospels (Matthew, Mark, Luke & John) are the
primary accounts of Jesus’ life and words. Luke begins his
Gospel with these words to Theophilus:
“Since I
myself have carefully investigated everything from the beginning, I too decided
to write an orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus.”[31]
Noted archaeologist Sir William Ramsey originally
rejected Luke’s historical account of Jesus. However, he later acknowledged,
“Luke is a historian of the first rank. This author should be placed along with
the very greatest historians. Luke’s history is unsurpassed in respect of its
trustworthiness.”[32]
The earliest accounts about Alexander were written 300
years after him. But how close to the life of Jesus were the Gospels written?
Would eyewitnesses to Jesus have still been alive, or was there enough time for
a legend to have developed?
In the 1830s, German scholars argued that the New
Testament was written in the 3rd century, much too late to have been written by
Jesus’ apostles. However, manuscript copies discovered in the 19th and 20th
centuries by archaeologists proved these accounts of Jesus were written much
earlier. (See ”But is it True?” at http://y-jesus.com/wwrj/4-are-gospels-true
)
William Albright dated all the New Testament books
“between about a.d. 50 and a.d. 75.”[33] John A. T. Robinson of Cambridge
After C. S. Lewis read the Gospels he wrote,
“Now, as a
literary historian, I am perfectly convinced that the Gospels are not legends.
I have read a great deal of legend and I am quite clear that they are not the
same sort of thing.”[35]
The quantity of manuscripts for the New Testament is
enormous. Over 24,000 complete or partial manuscript copies of its books exist,
putting it far above all other ancient documents.[36]
No other ancient historical person, religious or
secular, is backed up by as much documentation as is Jesus Christ. Historian
Paul Johnson remarks,
“If we
consider that Tacitus, for example, survives in only one medieval manuscript,
the quantity of early New Testament manuscripts is remarkable.”[37]
(For more on the reliability of the New Testament, see
”Are the Gospels Reliable?” at http://y-jesus.com/wwrj/4-are-gospels-true
)
5. Historical Impact
Myths have little, if any, impact on history. The
historian Thomas Carlyle said, “The history of the world is but the biography
of great men.[38]
“There is
no nation or regime which owes its foundation or heritage to a mythological
person or god.”
But what has been the impact of Jesus Christ? The
average Roman citizen didn’t feel his impact until many years after his death.
Jesus marshaled no army. He wrote no books and changed no laws. The Jewish
leaders and Roman Caesars had hoped to wipe out his memory, and it appeared
they would succeed.
Today, all we see of ancient Rome
Nations have used his words as the bedrock of their
governments. According to Durant,
“The
triumph of Christ was the beginning of democracy.”[39]
His Sermon on the Mount established a new paradigm in
ethics and morals. Schools, hospitals, and humanitarian works have been founded
in his name. Over 100 great universities including Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Dartmouth , Columbia , and Oxford
The elevated role of women in Western culture traces
its roots back to Jesus. (Women in Jesus’ day were considered inferior and
virtual nonpersons until his teaching was followed.) Slavery was abolished in Britain and America
Amazingly, Jesus made all of this impact as a result
of just a three-year period of public ministry. When noted author and world
historian H. G. Wells was asked who has left the greatest legacy on history, he
replied,
“By this test
Jesus stands first.”[41]
Yale historian Jaroslav Pelikan writes of him,
“Regardless
of what anyone may personally think or believe about him, Jesus of Nazareth
If Jesus didn’t exist, one must wonder how a myth
could so alter history.
Myth vs. Reality
Whereas mythical gods are depicted as superheroes
living out human fantasies and lusts, the Gospels portray Jesus as a man of
humility, compassion and impeccable moral character. His followers present him
as a real person for whom they willingly gave their lives.
The non-Christian scientist Albert Einstein stated,
“No one
can read the Gospels without feeling the actual presence of Jesus. His
personality pulsates in every word. No myth is filled with such life. No man
can deny the fact that Jesus existed, nor that his sayings are beautiful.”[43]
Is it possible Jesus’ death and resurrection was
plagiarised from these myths? Their case against Jesus was presented in the
YouTube movie, Zeitgeist, where author Peter Joseph boldly claims,
The
reality is, Jesus was a mythical figure. Christianity, along with all other
theistic belief systems, is the fraud of the age.[44]
As one compares the Jesus of the Gospels with the gods
of mythology, a distinction becomes obvious. In contrast to the reality of
Jesus revealed in the Gospels, accounts of mythological gods depict unrealistic
gods with elements of fantasy:
Mithra was supposedly born out of a rock.[45] Horus
is depicted with the head of a falcon.[46] Bacchus, Hercules, and
others were flown to heaven on the horse Pegasus.[47] Osiris was
killed, chopped into 14 pieces, and reassembled by his wife, Isis, and brought
back to life.[48]
But could Christianity have copied Jesus’ death and
resurrection from these myths?
His followers certainly didn’t think so; they
willingly gave their lives proclaiming that the account of Jesus’ resurrection
was true. (See ”Did Jesus rise from the dead?” at http://y-jesus.com/wwrj/6-jesus-rise-dead
)
Furthermore, “accounts of a dying and rising god that
somewhat parallel the story of Jesus’ resurrection appeared at least 100 years
after the reports of Jesus’ resurrection.”[49] In other words,
accounts of Horus, Osiris, and Mithra dying and rising from the dead were not
in their original mythologies, but were added after the Gospel accounts of
Jesus were written.
T. N. D. Mettinger, professor at Lund University
According to most historians there really are no true
parallels between any of these mythological gods and Jesus Christ. However, as
C. S. Lewis observes, there are some common themes that speak to mans’ desire
for immortality.
Lewis recounts a conversation he had with J. R. R.
Tolkien, the author of The Lord of the Rings trilogy. “The story of Christ,”
said Tolkien, “is simply a true myth: a myth…with this tremendous difference
that it really happened.”[51]
New Testament scholar F. F. Bruce concludes,
“Some
writers may toy with the fancy of a ‘Christ-myth,’ but they do not do so on the
grounds of historical evidence. The historicity of Christ is as axiomatic for
an unbiased historian as the historicity of Julius Caesar. It is not historians
who propagate the ‘Christ-myth’ theories.”[52]
Here Was a Man
So, do historians believe Jesus was a man or a myth?
Historians regard both Alexander the Great and Jesus
Christ as real men. Yet the manuscript evidence for Jesus is far greater and hundreds
of years closer to his life than the historical writings for Alexander are to his.
Furthermore, the historical impact of Jesus Christ far
exceeds that of Alexander. Historians cite the following evidence for Jesus’
existence:
&
Archaeological discoveries
continue to verify the Gospel accounts of people and places they record, the latest
being Pilate, Caiaphas and the existence of first-century Nazareth
&
Thousands of historical
writings document Jesus’ existence. Within 150 years of Jesus’ life 42 authors mention
him in their writings, including nine non-Christian sources. During that same
time period, only nine secular authors mention Tiberius Caesar; only five
sources report the conquests of Julius Caesar. Yet no historian denies their
existence.[53]
&
Historians, secular and
religious, readily acknowledge Jesus Christ has influenced our world more than any
other person.
&
After investigating the
Christ-myth theory, the great world historian Will Durant concluded that,
unlike the gods of mythology, Jesus was a real person.[54]
&
Historian Paul Johnson
states that all serious scholars acknowledge Jesus as real.[55]
&
Atheist historian Michael
Grant writes, “To sum up, modern critical methods fail to support the
Christ-myth theory. It has again and again been answered and annihilated by
first-rank scholars.”[56]
Perhaps the non-Christian historian H. G. Wells put it
the best regarding Jesus Christ’s existence:
Here was a
man. This part of the tale could not have been invented.[57]
Did Jesus Really Rise From The Dead?
The eyewitnesses to Jesus Christ actually spoke and
acted like they believed he rose from the dead after his crucifixion. No god of
mythology or any other religion ever had followers with such fervent
conviction.
But must we take the resurrection of Jesus Christ by
faith alone, or is there solid historical evidence? Several skeptics began
investigations into the historical record to prove the resurrection account
false. What did they discover? [See: http://y-jesus.com/wwrj/6-jesus-rise-dead
]
Endnotes
1. Ellen Johnson and Larry King, “What Happens
After We Die?” Larry King Live, CNN, April 14, 2005, http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0504/14/lkl.01.html
2. Quoted in David C. Downing, The Most
Reluctant Convert (Downers Grove ,
IL
3. C. S. Lewis, The Inspirational Writings of
C. S. Lewis: Surprised by Joy(New York: Inspirational Press, 1986), 122-3.
4. “Alexander the Great: The ‘Good’ Sources,”
Livius, http://www.livius.org/aj-al/alexander/alexander_z1b.html.
5. Malcolm Muggeridge, Jesus Rediscovered
(Bungay, Suffolk, UK: Fontana, 1969), 8.
6. Jennifer Walsh, “Ancient bone box might
point to biblical home of Caiaphas,” MSNBC.com, August 31, 20
7. Rene Salm, “The Myth of Nazareth: The
Invented Town of Jesus,”American Atheist.org, December 22, 2009, http://www.atheists.org/The_Myth_of_Nazareth,_Does_it_Really_Matter%3F
.
8. Paul Johnson, “A Historian Looks at Jesus,”
speech to Dallas Seminary, 1986.
9. Quoted in Josh McDowell and Bill Wilson,
Evidence for the Historical Jesus (Eugene, OR: Harvest House, 1993), 23.
10. Darrell L. Bock, Studying the Historical Jesus
(Grand Rapids , MI
11. D. James Kennedy, Skeptics Answered (Sisters,
OR: Multnomah, 1997), 76.
12. Flavius Josephus, Antiquities of the Jews
(Grand Rapids, MI: Kregel, 1966), 423. The quote is from book 20 of the
Antiquities.
13. Ibid., 379. Quotation is from the Arabic
translation of Josephus’ words about Jesus because some scholars believe the
Christian version, which affirmed Jesus’ resurrection as historical, was
altered. However, the Arabic translation cited here was under Islamic control,
where alterations by Christians would have been virtually impossible.
14. Bock, 57.
15. McDowell and Wilson, 42-43.
16. Ibid., 44.
17. Will Durant, “Caesar and Christ,” vol. 3 of
The Story of Civilization (New York: Simon & Schuster, 1972), 555.
18. Quoted in Durant, 281. The quote is from
Annals 15:44.
19. McDowell and Wilson, 49-50.
20. Gary R. Habermas, “Was Jesus Real,”
InterVarsity.org, August 8, 2008, http://www.intervarsity.org/studentsoul/item/was-jesus-real
.
21. Ibid.
22. Gary R. Habermas and Michael R. Licona, The
Case for the Resurrection of Jesus (Grand
Rapids , MI
23. Norman Geisler and Peter Bocchino, Unshakable
Foundations (Grand Rapids , MI
24. Habermas, “Was Jesus Real”.
25. Quoted in Josh McDowell, Evidence That Demands
a Verdict, vol. 1(Nashville: Nelson, 1979), 87.
26. Habermas and Licona, 212.27. McDowell and
Wilson, 74-79.
28. Norman L. Geisler and Paul K. Hoffman, eds.,
Why I Am a Christian(Grand Rapids ,
MI
29. Bruce M. Metzger, The Text of the New
Testament (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), 86.
30. Michael Grant, Jesus: An Historian’s Review of
the Gospels (London
31. Luke 1:1-3.
32. Quoted in Josh McDowell, The New Evidence That
Demands a Verdict(Nashville: Thomas Nelson, 1999), 61.
33. William Albright, “Toward a More Conservative
View,” Christianity Today,January 18, 1993.
34. John A. T. Robinson, Redating the New
Testament (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1976), 352-3.
35. C. S. Lewis, God in the Dock (Grand Rapids,
MI: Eerdmans, 1970), 158.
36. F. F. Bruce, The Books and the Parchments (Old
Tappan, NJ: Revell, 1984), 168.
37. Paul Johnson, Ibid.
38. Quoted in Christopher Lee, This Sceptred Isle
(London: Penguin, 1997), 1.
39. Will Durant, The Story of Philosophy (New
York: Pocket, 1961), 428.
40. Quoted in Bill Bright, Believing God for the
Impossible (San Bernardino, CA: Here’s Life, 1979), 177-8.
41. Quoted in Bernard Ramm, Protestant Christian
Evidences (Chicago: Moody Press, 1957), 163.
42. Jaroslav Pelikan, Jesus through the Centuries
(New York: Harper & Row, 1987), 1.
43. Quoted in “What Life Means to Einstein: An
Interview by George Sylvester Viereck,” Saturday Evening Post, October 26,
1929, 17.
44. Peter Joseph, Zeitgeist, http://zeitgeistmovie.com/http://vimeo.com/13726978
. In the YouTube documentary, Zeitgeist, Peter Joseph uses hand-picked sources
(Gerald Massey and Acharya S.), attempting to build a case that Jesus is a
“copycat” of the ancient Egyptian god, Horus. Regarding Zeitgeist’s sources,
Dr. Ben Witherington notes, “Not a single one of these authors and sources are
experts in the Bible, Biblical history, the Ancient Near East, Egyptology, or
any of the cognate fields they are not reliable sources of information about
the origins of Christianity, Judaism, or much of anything else of relevance to
this discussion.” http://benwitherington.blogspot.com/2007/12/zeitgeist-of-zeitgeist-movie.html
. The alleged parallels between Jesus and Horus are analyzed and systematically
refuted in the following website: http://kingdavid8.com/Copycat/JesusHorus.html
.
45. Lee Strobel, The Case for the Real Jesus (Grand Rapids , MI
48. Habermas and Licona, 90.
49. Ibid.
50. Quoted in Strobel, 160-61. [In his
interview with Strobel, Michael Licona states that Mettinger takes exception to
that nearly universal scholarship by claiming that there are at least three and
possibly as many as five dying and rising gods that predate Christianity.
However, after combing through all these accounts and critically analyzing them
Mettinger adds that "none of these serve as parallels to Jesus." Mettinger
writes, "There is, as far as I am aware, no prima facie evidence that the
death and resurrection of Jesus is a mythological construct, drawing on the
myths and rites of the dying and rising gods of the surrounding world. The
death and resurrection of Jesus retains its unique character in the history of religions."]
51. Quoted in Chuck Colson, “Jesus Christ and
Harry Potter,” Breakpoint, July 29, 2011, http://www.breakpoint.org/bpcommentaries/entry/13/17568
.
52. F. F. Bruce, The New Testament Documents: Are
They Reliable? (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1997), 119.
53. Habermas and Licona, 127.
54. Quoted in Durant, 553-4.
55. Paul Johnson, Ibid.
56. Grant, 200.
57.
H. G. Wells, The Outline of History (New
York: Doubleday, 1949), 528.
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